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La période de la dynastie chinoise des Han … La période de la dynastie chinoise des Han (206 av. J.-C. - 220 du calendrier grégorien) est une période charnière dans l'histoire prémoderne des sciences et des technologies en Chine, puisqu'elle a été le cadre d'avancées majeures dans ces domaines. En matière de métallurgie, les innovations de la période de la dynastie Zhou sont améliorées et la période Han connaît l'essor de l'usage de l'acier et du fer forgé grâce à l'usage de l'acier naturel et du puddlage. En parvenant à forer toujours plus profondément dans la terre, les Han ne se contentent pas d'utiliser uniquement des derricks pour remonter de la saumure pour leur production de sel, mais ils élaborent aussi des pipeline en bambou afin d'acheminer du gaz naturel directement vers les fours. Les techniques de fonte sont améliorées grâce à l'invention de soufflets actionnés par des roues à eau. La diffusion d'outils en fer permet ainsi d'accroître la productivité agricole et par extension la croissance démographique. Les systèmes d'irrigation sont améliorés avec l'invention de pompes mécaniques actionnées par des roues à eau ou des animaux, ce qui permet de transporter l'eau vers des terrains plus élevés. Par ailleurs, les roues à eau servent à actionner des martinets pour moudre le grain, mais également pour faire tourner des sphères armillaires représentant la sphère céleste autour de la Terre. Les inventions Han permettent d'améliorer sensiblement la qualité de vie des Chinois. Auparavant, les écrit étaient conservés sur des rouleaux de bambous, mais l'invention du processus de fabrication du papier permet de créer un nouveau support d'écriture moins onéreux et plus facile à produire. L'invention de la brouette permet de déplacer de lourdes charges. Les jonques maritimes à l'arrière desquelles un gouvernail est monté permettent aux Chinois de s'aventurer au-delà des eaux calmes des lacs et rivières pour explorer la mer. Les Hans inventent aussi à cette époque les cartes graduées et en relief. En médecine, de nouveaux remèdes à base d'herbes sont élaborés afin de guérir les maladies. La généralisation de la pratique d'exercice physique et des régimes régulés permettent en parallèle de réduire les maladies. Les autorités de la capitale sont prévenues de la direction des séismes grâce à l'invention d'un sismomètre, qui est actionné par un mécanisme à pendule. Pour marquer le passage des saisons et les occasions particulières, les han utilisent deux versions de calendrier lunaires, qui sont établis grâce aux efforts entrepris en astronomie et mathématiques. Les avancées en matière de mathématiques à cette époque incluent la découverte de la racine carrée, de la racine cubique, du théorème de Pythagore, de l'élimination de Gauss-Jordan, de la méthode de Ruffini-Horner, l'amélioration du calcul de pi et les nombres négatifs. Des centaines de nouvelles routes et de nouveaux canaux sont construits pour faciliter le transport, le commerce, la collecte des taxes, la communication et le mouvement des troupes militaires. Les han utilisent également différents types de ponts pour enjamber les voies d'eau ou les précipices, comme les ponts à poutres, les ponts en arc, les ponts de singe et les ponts flottants. Les murs défensifs des villes fortifiés sont fabriqués en briques ou en terre battue et pour certains toujours debout aujourd'hui.pour certains toujours debout aujourd'hui.
, Dinasti Han (206 SM – 220 M) di Tiongkok t … Dinasti Han (206 SM – 220 M) di Tiongkok telah berhasil mencapai berbagai kemajuan teknologi, contohnya adalah pembuatan baja dan besi tempa dengan metode penempaan finery forge. Orang Han juga sudah bisa mengebor lubang yang dalam untuk mengambil air garam yang kemudian diuapkan untuk menghasilkan garam. Dalam bidang matematika, orang Han telah menemukan konsep akar kuadrat, akar pangkat tiga, teorema Pythagoras, eliminasi Gauss, dan bilangan negatif. Pada masa Han juga terdapat seorang cendekiawan yang bernama Zhang Heng yang dikenal sebagai pembuat seismometer yang dapat mendeteksi gempa bumi yang terjadi ratusan kilometer jauhnya. Selain itu, ia pernah membuat bola armiler yang merepresentasikan pergerakan benda-benda langit dalam ranah tiga dimensi. Ia menghasilkan gerak rotasi pada bola tersebut dengan menggunakan jam air dan roda air.t dengan menggunakan jam air dan roda air.
, La dinastía Han (206 a. C. – 220 d. C.) de … La dinastía Han (206 a. C. – 220 d. C.) de la antigua China, dividida entre las eras Han Occidental (206 a. C. – 9 d. C., cuando la capital estaba en Chang'an); la dinastía Xin de Wang Mang (9 – 23 d. C.); y la época Han Oriental (25 – 220 d. C., cuando la capital estaba en Luoyang y después del 196 d. C. en Xuchang), fue testigo de algunos de los avances más significativos en la tecnología y la ciencia chinas previas a la edad moderna. ciencia chinas previas a la edad moderna.
, The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) of earl … The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) of early imperial China, divided between the eras of Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE, when the capital was at Chang'an), the Xin dynasty of Wang Mang (r. 9–23 CE), and Eastern Han (25–220 CE, when the capital was at Luoyang, and after 196 CE at Xuchang), witnessed some of the most significant advancements in premodern Chinese science and technology. There were great innovations in metallurgy. In addition to Zhou-era China's (c. 1046 – 256 BCE) previous inventions of the blast furnace and cupola furnace to make pig iron and cast iron, respectively, the Han period saw the development of steel and wrought iron by use of the finery forge and puddling process. With the drilling of deep boreholes into the earth, the Chinese used not only derricks to lift brine up to the surface to be boiled into salt, but also set up bamboo-crafted pipeline transport systems which brought natural gas as fuel to the furnaces. Smelting techniques were enhanced with inventions such as the waterwheel-powered bellows; the resulting widespread distribution of iron tools facilitated the growth of agriculture. For tilling the soil and planting straight rows of crops, the improved heavy-moldboard plough with three iron plowshares and sturdy multiple-tube iron seed drill were invented in the Han, which greatly enhanced production yields and thus sustained population growth. The method of supplying irrigation ditches with water was improved with the invention of the mechanical chain pump powered by the rotation of a waterwheel or draft animals, which could transport irrigation water up elevated terrains. The waterwheel was also used for operating trip hammers in pounding grain and in rotating the metal rings of the mechanical-driven astronomical armillary sphere representing the celestial sphere around the Earth. The quality of life was improved with many Han inventions. The Han Chinese had hempen-bound bamboo scrolls to write on, yet by the 2nd century CE had invented the papermaking process which created a writing medium that was both cheap and easy to produce. The invention of the wheelbarrow aided in the hauling of heavy loads. The maritime junk ship and stern-mounted steering rudder enabled the Chinese to venture out of calmer waters of interior lakes and rivers and into the open sea. The invention of the grid reference for maps and raised-relief map allowed for better navigation of their terrain. In medicine, they used new herbal remedies to cure illnesses, calisthenics to keep physically fit, and regulated diets to avoid diseases. Authorities in the capital were warned ahead of time of the direction of sudden earthquakes with the invention of the seismometer that was tripped by a vibration-sensitive pendulum device. To mark the passing of the seasons and special occasions, the Han Chinese used two variations of the lunisolar calendar, which were established due to efforts in astronomy and mathematics. Han-era Chinese advancements in mathematics include the discovery of square roots, cube roots, the Pythagorean theorem, Gaussian elimination, the Horner scheme, improved calculations of pi, and negative numbers. Hundreds of new roads and canals were built to facilitate transport, commerce, tax collection, communication, and movement of military troops. The Han-era Chinese also employed several types of bridges to cross waterways and deep gorges, such as beam bridges, arch bridges, simple suspension bridges, and pontoon bridges. Han ruins of defensive city walls made of brick or rammed earth still stand today.f brick or rammed earth still stand today.
, شهدت فترة سلالة هان (206 قبل الميلاد – 220 … شهدت فترة سلالة هان (206 قبل الميلاد – 220 ميلادية) في الصين القديمة، التي شملت عصر سلالة هان الغربية (من العام 206 قبل الميلاد – 9 ميلادية، عندما كانت العاصمة في تشانغآن)، وسلالة شين من وانغ مانغ (الذي حكَم بين الأعوام 9 – 23 ميلادية)، وسلالة هان الشرقية (25 – 220 ميلادية، عندما كانت العاصمة في لويانغ، وفي تزو تشانغ بعد العام 196 ميلادية)، شهدت بعض أهم التطورات في العلوم والتقنيات الصينية قبل العصور الحديثة. حصلت ابتكارات هامّة في علم الفلزات. بالإضافة إلى الاختراعات الصينية خلال حقبة سلالة زو الحاكمة (1050 – 256 قبل الميلاد)، مثل الفرن اللافح لصنع حديد الغفل، وفرن الدست لصنع حديد الزهر، شهدت فترة سلالة هان الحاكمة تطور الصلب والحديد المطاوع باستخدام كُور الزخرفة وفرن التسويط. عبر حفر آبار السبر في الأرض، استخدم الصينيون أدوات الحفر لاستخراج محلول الأجاج إلى السطح لِيُصار إلى غليه وتحويله إلى ملح الطعام؛ كما أسسوا أنظمة خطوط الأنابيب مصنوعةً من الخيزران لتزويد الغاز الطبيعي وقودًا للأفران. وحُسّنت أساليب الصهر بفضل اختراعات مثل الكير الذي يعمل بالنواعير؛ وأسهم الانتشار الواسع للأدوات الحديدية في تسهيل نمو الزراعة. ولحراثة التربة وزرع صفوف مستقيمة من المحاصيل، اختُرع خلال حقبة حُكم سلالة هان كلٌّ من المحراث الثقيل المطوّر ذي الشفرات الحديدية الثلاث، وآلة زرع البذور الحديدية متعددة الأنابيب المتينة، وهو ما رفع حاصل الإنتاج بصورة كبيرة وبالتالي الزيادة السكانية المستدامة. كما أُدخلت تحسينات على كيفية إمداد قنوات الري بالمياه إثر اختراع مضخة السلسلة الآلية التي تعمل عبر دوران عجلة مائية أو حيوانات الجر، والتي تمكنت من نضح مياه الري إلى الأماكن المرتفعة. واستُخدمت العجلة المائية كذلك لتشغيل المطارق السقّاطة في دقّ الحبوب وفي تدوير الحلقات المعدنية للإسطرلاب الكروي ذي الدفع الآلي والذي يمثل القبة السماوية المحيطة بالأرض. طرأ تحسينٌ على نوعية الحياة بفضل العديد من اختراعات حقبة سلالة هان الحاكمة. وفي تلك الفترة كان الصينيون يستخدمون لفائف الخيزران والقنب للكتابة، إنما بحلول القرن الثاني الميلادي اخترعوا عملية صناعة الورق التي أنتجت وسيلة كتابةٍ رخيصة وسهلة الإنتاج. كما ساعد اختراع عربة اليد في نقل الحمولات الثقيلة. ومكّنت سفينة الجنك البحرية والدفة المثبتة في مؤخرة السفينة الصينيين من الخروج من المياه الهادئة للبحيرات والأنهار الداخلية إلى البحار المفتوحة. وساهم اختراع نظام الإحداثيات للخرائط وخريطة التضاريس المرتفعة في تحسين تنقّل الصينيين في أراضيهم. في الطب، استخدموا علم الأعشاب الصيني الجديدة لعلاج الأمراض، والجمبازيات للمحافظة على اللياقة البدنية، والحميات الغذائية المنظمة لتفادي الإصابة بالأمراض. وتلقت السلطات في العاصمة تحذيرات مبكرة بخصوص اتجاه الزلازل المفاجئة من خلال اختراع مقياس الزلازل الذي يشغّله جهاز رقاص حساس للاهتزازات. ولتحديد مرور الفصول والمناسبات الخاصة، استخدم الصينيون الهان صنفين من التقويم الصيني الشمسي-القمري، واللذين جاءا ثمرةً للجهود في علم الفلك والرياضيات. تضم أوجه التقدّم الصينية في عصر سلالة هان في الرياضيات اكتشاف الجذر التربيعي، والجذر التكعيبي، ومبرهنة فيثاغورس، والحذف الغاوسي، وطريقة هورنر، وحسابات متقدمة لباي (ط)، والعدد السالب. وأُنشئت مئات الطرق والقنوات الجديدة لتسهيل النقل، والتجارة، وجباية الضرائب، والتواصل، وتحرك القوات العسكرية. كما استخدم الصينيون في حقبة هان مختلف أنواع الجسور لعبور الممرات المائية والوديان العميقة، مثل الجسور ذي الكمرات، والجسور القوسية، والجسور المعلقة البسيطة، والجسور العائمة. وما تزال قائمة لليوم آثار حقبة سلالة هان من جدران المدن الصينية الدفاعية المصنوعة من الطابوق أو التربة المدكوكة.ية المصنوعة من الطابوق أو التربة المدكوكة.
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right
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A Western-Han bronze door knocker in the shape of an animalistic head; door knockers have also been found in Han artwork, such as on ceramic models of gates leading to lower-level courtyards of multi-story towers and on underground stone tomb doors.
, A painted pottery jar from the Western Han period, decorated with raised reliefs of dragons and phoenixes
, An Eastern-Han stone-carved tomb door decorated with a ringed door knocker, from a tomb in Luoyang
, An Eastern-Han celadon ceramic bottle with a lid and lug handles
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horizontal
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A Chinese crossbow trigger mechanism with a buttplate from either the late Warring States Period or the early Han dynpasty; made of bronze and inlaid with silver
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left
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left
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left/right/center
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Eastern Han tomb door, Luoyang 2.jpg
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شهدت فترة سلالة هان (206 قبل الميلاد – 220 … شهدت فترة سلالة هان (206 قبل الميلاد – 220 ميلادية) في الصين القديمة، التي شملت عصر سلالة هان الغربية (من العام 206 قبل الميلاد – 9 ميلادية، عندما كانت العاصمة في تشانغآن)، وسلالة شين من وانغ مانغ (الذي حكَم بين الأعوام 9 – 23 ميلادية)، وسلالة هان الشرقية (25 – 220 ميلادية، عندما كانت العاصمة في لويانغ، وفي تزو تشانغ بعد العام 196 ميلادية)، شهدت بعض أهم التطورات في العلوم والتقنيات الصينية قبل العصور الحديثة.علوم والتقنيات الصينية قبل العصور الحديثة.
, La période de la dynastie chinoise des Han (206 av. J.-C. - 220 du calendrier grégorien) est une période charnière dans l'histoire prémoderne des sciences et des technologies en Chine, puisqu'elle a été le cadre d'avancées majeures dans ces domaines.
, La dinastía Han (206 a. C. – 220 d. C.) de … La dinastía Han (206 a. C. – 220 d. C.) de la antigua China, dividida entre las eras Han Occidental (206 a. C. – 9 d. C., cuando la capital estaba en Chang'an); la dinastía Xin de Wang Mang (9 – 23 d. C.); y la época Han Oriental (25 – 220 d. C., cuando la capital estaba en Luoyang y después del 196 d. C. en Xuchang), fue testigo de algunos de los avances más significativos en la tecnología y la ciencia chinas previas a la edad moderna. ciencia chinas previas a la edad moderna.
, Dinasti Han (206 SM – 220 M) di Tiongkok t … Dinasti Han (206 SM – 220 M) di Tiongkok telah berhasil mencapai berbagai kemajuan teknologi, contohnya adalah pembuatan baja dan besi tempa dengan metode penempaan finery forge. Orang Han juga sudah bisa mengebor lubang yang dalam untuk mengambil air garam yang kemudian diuapkan untuk menghasilkan garam. Dalam bidang matematika, orang Han telah menemukan konsep akar kuadrat, akar pangkat tiga, teorema Pythagoras, eliminasi Gauss, dan bilangan negatif.as, eliminasi Gauss, dan bilangan negatif.
, The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) of earl … The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) of early imperial China, divided between the eras of Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE, when the capital was at Chang'an), the Xin dynasty of Wang Mang (r. 9–23 CE), and Eastern Han (25–220 CE, when the capital was at Luoyang, and after 196 CE at Xuchang), witnessed some of the most significant advancements in premodern Chinese science and technology. premodern Chinese science and technology.
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Technologie sous la dynastie Han
, Science and technology of the Han dynasty
, Ciencia y tecnología de la dinastía Han
, العلوم والتقنيات في فترة سلالة هان
, Ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi Dinasti Han
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